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European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2002). Council decides PMMA should be placed under control : EU member states have three months to act. Lisbon: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA).
Abstract: The Council of the European Union adopted a unanimous decision on 28 February defining the new synthetic drug PMMA (para-methoxymethylamphetamine) as a substance to be placed under control measures and criminal penalties in the EU Member States.
Keywords: amphetamines; monitoring; risk assessment; designer drug; research chemical; press release; Europe
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Gerstein, D. R., Johnson, R. A., Harwood, H. J., Fountain, D., Suter, N., & Malloy, K. (1994). Evaluating recovery services : the California drug and alcohol treatment assessment (CALDATA) : general report (N. O. R. Center, & Lewin-VHI, Eds.). Sacramento: California Department of alcohol and Drug Programs.
Abstract: The cost of treating approximately 150,000 participants represented by the CALDATA study sample in 1992 was $209 million. Each day of treatment paid for itself on the day it was received, primarily through an avoidance of crime. The benefits of alcohol and other drug treatment outweighed the costs of treatment by ratios from 4:1 to greater than 12:1, depending on the type of treatment. Benefits after treatment persisted through the second year of follow-up for the limited number of participants followed for as long as 2 years. This suggests that projected cumulative lifetime benefits of treatment will be substantially higher than the shorter-term figures. The level of criminal activity declined by two-thirds from before treatment to after treatment. The greater the length of time spent in treatment, the greater the percentage of reduction in criminal activity. Declines of approximately two-fifths also occurred in the use of alcohol and other drugs from before treatment to after treatment. Approximately one-third reductions in hospitalizations were reported from before treatment to after treatment. For each type of treatment studied, there were slight or no differences in effectiveness based on gender, age, or ethnicity. Overall, treatment did not have a positive effect on the economic situation of the participants during the study period. 38 tables and 11 figures
Keywords: treatment and maintenance
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Prior, D. (1998, 15.03.1998). The tory and the toke. The Independent on Sunday, 8.
Abstract: The Conservative MP for North Norfolk has enjoyed a joint or two in his time and he wonders why the practice is still illegal
Keywords: illicit drug; licit drug; legal regulation; marijuana in any form; cannabis; United Kingdom; newspaper article
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European Monitoring Centre for Drugs & Drug Addiction. (2009). EMCDDA Conference proceedings : identifying Europe's information needs for effective drug policy. Conference proceedings. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
Abstract: The conference Identifying Europe’s information needs for effective drug policy marked the 15th anniversary of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), and our activity of monitoring drugs and drug addiction in the European Union. It had several objectives: to better understand the current needs of policymakers, practitioners and researchers, to identify new developments in the drugs field and new results of drug-related research, and to provide input on the future work of the EMCDDA and its partners. This publication summarises the presentations and discussions from the plenary and parallel sessions. It reflects the dynamism and commitment of those who study and respond to the drugs problem, and who made the conference such a productive, stimulating and successful event. The content of this publication will therefore be a vital tool for guiding the further development of our activities here in Lisbon.
Keywords: government and politics; international area; Europe; addiction; research; monitoring
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Consortium, I. D. P. (2012). Modernising drug law enforcement project. London: Transnational Institute (TNI), International Drug Policy Consortium (IDPC); Chatham House; International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS).
Abstract: The ’Modernising Drug Law Enforcement Project’ is an initiative of the International Drug Policy Consortium (IDPC), in partnership with the International Security Research Department at Chatham House and the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS). This concept note explains the reasons behind the initiative and the key activities planned.
Keywords: public policy on AOD; law enforcement; AODR violence; AODR crime; drug market; public health; concept; international area
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Thomas, K. V., Bijlsma, L., Castiglioni, S., Covaci, A., Emke, E., Grabic, R., et al. (2012). Comparing illicit drug use in 19 European cities through sewage analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 432, 432–439.
Abstract: The analysis of sewage for urinary biomarkers of illicit drugs is a promising and complementary approach for estimating the use of these substances in the general population. For the first time, this approach was simultaneously applied in 19 European cities, making it possible to directly compare illicit drug loads in Europe over a 1-week period. An inter-laboratory comparison study was performed to evaluate the analytical performance of the participating laboratories. Raw 24-hour composite sewage samples were collected from 19 European cities during a single week in March 2011 and analyzed for the urinary biomarkers of cocaine, amphetamine, ecstasy, methamphetamine and cannabis using in-house optimized and validated analytical methods. The load of each substance used in each city was back-calculated from the measured concentrations. The data show distinct temporal and spatial patterns in drug use across Europe. Cocaine use was higher in Western and Central Europe and lower in Northern and Eastern Europe. The extrapolated total daily use of cocaine in Europe during the study period was equivalent to 356 kg/day. High per capita ecstasy loads were observed in Dutch cities, as well as in Antwerp and London. In general, cocaine and ecstasy loads were significantly elevated during the weekend compared to weekdays. Per-capita loads of methamphetamine were highest in Helsinki and Turku, Oslo and Budweis, while the per capita loads of cannabis were similar throughout Europe. This study shows that a standardized analysis for illicit drug urinary biomarkers in sewage can be applied to estimate and compare the use of these substances at local and international scales. This approach has the potential to deliver important information on drug markets (supply indicator).
Keywords: AOD use; illicit drug; ecstasy; MDMA; cocaine; cannabis; amphetamines; research; study; water pollution; international differences; international area; statistical data; Europe; journal article
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Rolles, S., Murkin, G., Powell, M., Kushlick, D., & Slater, J. (2012). The alternative world drug report : counting the costs of the war on drugs. Bristol: Count the Costs.
Abstract: The Alternative World Drug Report, launched to coincide with the publication of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime’s 2012 World Drug Report, exposes the failure of governments and the UN to assess the extraordinary costs of pursuing a global war on drugs, and calls for UN member states to meaningfully count these costs and explore all the alternatives. After 50 years of the current enforcement-led international drug control system, the war on drugs is coming under unparalleled scrutiny. Its goal was to create a “drug-free world”. Instead, despite more than a trillion dollars spent fighting the war, according to the UNODC, illegal drugs are used by an estimated 270 million people and organised crime profits from a trade with an estimated turnover of over $330 billion a year – the world’s largest illegal commodity market. In its 2008 World Drug Report, the UNODC acknowledged that choosing an enforcement-based approach was having a range of negative “unintended consequences”, including: the creation of a vast criminal market, displacement of the illegal drugs trade to new areas, diversion of funding from health, and the stigmatisation of users. It is unacceptable that neither the UN or its member governments have meaningfully assessed these unintended consequences to establish whether they outweigh the intended consequences of the current global drug control system, and that they are not documented in the UNODC’s flagship annual World Drug Report. This groundbreaking Alternative World Drug Report fills this gap in government and UN evaluations by detailing the full range of negative impacts resulting from choosing an enforcement-led approach.
Keywords: government and politics; laws and regulations; drug legalization; drug decriminalization; crime; public policy on AOD; policy recommendations; cost (economic); international area
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Nordlund, S. (2008). What is alcohol abuse? : changes in Norwegians' perceptions of drinking practices since the 1960s. Addiction Research and Theory, 16(1; 02/2008), 85–94.
Abstract: The aims of this study is to demonstrate how perceptions of the concept of “alcohol abuse” have changed over time and to delineate variations among sub-groups of the Norwegian population. An initial survey was conducted in 1964 in 10 Norwegian cities. Follow-up surveys were conducted in 1989 and 2006 based on national, representative samples. From these samples presumably comparable sub-samples have been selected. The respondents characterised 18 different drinking situations as “abuse”, “not abuse” or “doubt”. The 18 drinking situations were constructed based on combinations of three degrees of drinking frequencies, three degrees of intoxication and two degrees of sociability. The different combinations were presented to the respondents on cards, and in a random order. Norwegians’ perceptions of alcohol consumption have undergone major changes, particularly with respect to perceptions of what constitutes “alcohol abuse”. In general, views have become more liberal and permissive. A shift in perceptions since 1964 was already manifest or: evident in 1989, but this has developed further in the same direction since then. The more people drink, the more liberal are their views on what is “alcohol abuse”? This applies both on individual and aggregated levels. Perceptions of drinking practices, especially of “alcohol abuse”, have shifted with the change in average alcohol consumption. The higher general consumption the more drinking is allow before it is perceived as abuse. This is probably a reciprocal process with no specific causal direction, but obviously influenced by external factors, such as economic and cultural globalisation, tourism and generally more liberal views on many other facets of society and social life.
Keywords: AOD consumption; chemical addiction; alcohol abuse; AOD intoxication; societal attitude toward AOD; Norway
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Rehm, J., Roerecke, M., & Patra, J. (2006). Alcohol-attributable mortality and burden of disease in Switzerland : epidemiology and recommendations for alcohol policy = Alkohol-bedingte Mortalität und Krankheitslast in der Schweiz : von der Epidemiologie zu empfehlenswerten Massnahmen. Zurich; Zürich: Research Institute for Public Health and Addiction (ISGF); Institut für Sucht- und Gesundheitsforschung (ISGF); World Health Organization (WHO), Collaboration Centre for Addiction.
Abstract: The aim of this project was to model the impact of alcohol on mortality, years of life lost and burden of disease for Switzerland for the year 2002 in a way, which is compatible with current effort of the World Health Organization (WHO) in alcohol monitoring and surveillance. Thus, the main results for this project follow the methodology of WHO in each point. Key elements of the methodology can be described as follows: • Exposure to alcohol has been estimated based on the Swiss Health Survey where the self-reported data have adjusted for the per capita consumption including unrecorded consumption taken from the WHO Global alcohol Database. • Risk relations were taken from the Comparative Risk Assessment of WHO, which is based on disease-specific meta-analyses for chronic disease categories, and pooled cross-sectional time series analyses for injuries. • Deaths, years of life lost (YLLs) and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were obtained from the WHO. The steps of the methodology are described in detail to enable replication of the estimates in further years. Results show that Switzerland continues to be a country with a very high level of alcohol consumption compared to international standards and consequently high level of alcoholrelated disease burden: • For the year 2002, alcohol caused more than 2’000 deaths, mostly in man (78%). These are net numbers, where the cardioprotective and other beneficial effects of alcohol have already been taken into account. In total, more than 3.3% of all deaths in the year 2002 in Switzerland were attributable to alcohol (5.2% among men, and 1.4% among women), a higher proportion compared to the surrounding countries. • The largest single disease contributor to alcohol-attributable deaths was liver cirrhosis with more than 600 deaths, but if larger categories were examined, cancer was the largest contributor with more than 1’200 deaths. Ischaemic heart disease was largest contributor alcohol-attributable lives saved, with almost 1’100. • In the year 2002, alcohol caused a net 29’000 years of life lost due to premature mortality (YLL), and more than 70’000 net disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Overall, 8.2% of the YLLs in Switzerland (10.5% among men and 4.9% among men) were net attributable to alcohol, as well as 8.8% of DALYs (12.9% among men and 4.2% among men). Again, these proportions were higher than surrounding countries, mainly because of the higher proportions for women. • For DALYs, neuropsychiatric disorders, especially alcohol use disorders are the most important disease category. alcohol use disorders are less fatal than other chronic diseases, but in summary measures such as DALYs they are main contributors because of their high prevalence combined with their marked impact on disability. Given the high burden of disease attributable to alcohol, even in comparison with the surrounding countries, prevention and policy measures should be taken to reduce this burden. Clearly, the overall level of consumption should be reduced, and taxation and other proven cost-effective measures are available to achieve this reduction, including but not limited to restrictions in availability and marketing/advertisements. Moreover, specific measures should be taken to reduce the alcohol-attributable disease among women and young adults. Ziel des Projekts war die Schätzung der Zahl alkoholbedingter Todesfälle, verlorener Lebensjahre und Krankheitslast in der Schweiz im Jahr 2002. Die gegenwärtig von der Weltgesundheitsorganisation WHO unternommenen Schritte beim Monitoring von Alkoholfolgen sind in allen Stufen vollkommen vergleichbar zur hier eingesetzten Methodik. Die wichtigsten methodischen Details sind: • Alkoholkonsum als die Einflussvariable wurde aufgrund der Daten der jüngst verfügbaren Schweizerischen Gesundheitsbefragung operationalisiert, wobei der selbstberichtete Konsum aber adjustiert wurde anhand der offiziellen pro-Kopf Verkaufsmengen von Alkohol zuzüglich Schätzungen des nicht versteuerten Alkoholverkaufs. • Die Stärke des Zusammenhangs zwischen Konsum und Schadensfolgen wurde übernommen aus den Schätzungen der Comparative Risk Assessment (CRA) Studie der WHO. Die CRA-Studie benutzte für diese Schätzung krankheitsspezifische Meta-Analysen für langfristige Folgen (chronische Krankheiten) und spezielle Techniken zur Zeitreihenanalyse über mehrere Länder hinweg bei der Bestimmung kurzfristiger (Unfall-)Folgen. • Todesfälle, verlorene Lebensjahre und für Funktionseinschränkungen adjustierte Lebensjahre (disability-adjusted life years =DALYs) wurden aus den Datenbanken der WHO übernommen. Durch die detaillierte Beschreibung jedes einzelnen Schrittes der Schätzmethode wird eine Wiederholung der Schätzungen in späteren Jahren möglich sein, was für künftige Vergleiche essenziell ist. Die Schweiz zeigt sich im internationalen Vergleich weiterhin als ein Land mit sehr hohem Alkoholkonsum. Deshalb weist sie auch ein hohes Ausmass von alkoholbedingter Krankheitslast auf: • Im Jahr 2002 sind mehr als 2’000 Todesfälle dem Alkoholkonsum zuzurechnen, die meisten davon betreffen Männer (78%). Diese Zahlen berücksichtigen als Nettoschätzung bereits die kardioprotektiven und anderen positiven Auswirkungen mässigen Alkoholkonsums auf manche Krankheiten. Insgesamt waren gut 3.3% der Todesfälle in der Schweiz alkoholbedingt (bei Männern 5.2%, bei Frauen 1.4%). Dies ist ein jeweils höherer Prozentsatz als in den angrenzenden Nachbarländern. • Leberzirrhose ist mit mehr als 600 alkoholbedingten Todesfällen die wichtigste spezifische Einzeldiagnose unter den alkoholbedingten Todesfällen. Bei Betrachtung von breiter gefassten Diagnosegruppen sind Krebserkrankungen mit gut 1’200 Todesfällen die wichtigste Todesursache. Ischämische Herzkrankheiten sind die grösste Gruppe bei den durch Alkoholkonsum verhinderten Todesfällen (1’100 Fälle). • Im Jahr 2002 bedeutete der Alkoholkonsum in der Schweiz netto 29’000 verlorene Lebensjahre und mehr als 70’000 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). 8.2% aller verlorenen Lebensjahre in der Schweiz im Jahre 2002 waren alkoholbedingt (10.5% bei den Männern und 4.9% bei den Frauen). Bei der gesamten Krankheitslast (gemessen in DALYs) sind 8.8% durch den Alkoholkonsum bedingt gewesen (12.9% bei den Männern und 4.2% bei den Frauen). Auch diese Anteile waren in der Schweiz höher als in den benachbarten Ländern, vorwiegend aufgrund einer relativ höheren Belastung bei den Schweizer Frauen. • Neuropsychiatrische Diagnosen, insbesondere Alkoholkrankheiten wie Abhängigkeit, Alkoholpsychosen oder Alkoholmissbrauch, stellen hinsichtlich der alkoholbedingten Krankheitslast (DALYs) den grössten Anteil. Alkoholkrankheiten verlaufen seltener tödlich als andere chronische Krankheiten. Aber im Rahmen von Gesundheitsindikatoren mit einem breiteren Ansatz, die nicht nur auf Mortalität fussen, sind sie besonders grosse Einflussfaktoren, weil sie einerseits in der Bevölkerung sehr weit verbreitet sind und weil sie andererseits zu Krankheiten mit schwerwiegenden Krankheitsfolgen führen. Angesichts der absolut, aber auch im Vergleich mit den benachbarten Ländern sehr hohen alkoholbedingten Krankheitslast sollten gesundheitspolitische Massnahmen insbesondere zur Prävention ergriffen werden. Erstes Ziel wäre dabei die Reduktion des hohen Gesamtkonsums. Massnahmen wie höhere Besteuerung von Alkoholika, Beschränkungen der Verfügbarkeit, sowie Einschränkung von Werbung und Verkaufsförderung haben ihre Wirksamkeit bewiesen und sind kosteneffektiv. Angesichts der spezifischen epidemiologischen Situation in der Schweiz sollten auch speziellen Massnahmen für Frauen und junge Erwachsene ergriffen werden.
Keywords: addiction; AOD dependence; chemical addiction; alcohol; AODR mortality; AODR disability; AOD consumption; alcohol in any form; AOD effects and consequences; cancer; epidemiology; research and evaluation method; general topics in research; Switzerland
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Moloney, M., & Hunt, G. (2010). Ecstasy, gender and accountability in a rave scene. SuchtMagazin, 36(5; 10/2010), 7–11.
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to examine the accomplishment of gender in the context of the youth cultural formation of dance raves. Drawing on a narrative analysis of in-depth interviews with 300 young women and men in a San Francisco rave scene, we examine the role that the drug ecstasy plays in the gender formations at these events. We present evidence to show that using ecstasy within the social context of raves allows increased gender flexibility and alternatives to conventional notions of femininity and masculinity. This is particularly apparent in the ways that young women exhibit greater sexual assertiveness and young men demonstrate increased affective and communicative displays. Yet at the same time, their narratives provide ample evidence that gender accomplishment in this context does not occur outside the bounds of gender accountability and behaviors seen as gender inappropriate are actively policed and sanctioned.
Keywords: nightlife; AOD use; psychoactive substances; conference proceedings; journal article
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